ID-125
Plate A-2.
Leaf burn is a symptom of freeze damage to wheat that has broken dormancy and has had prolonged exposure to low temperatures (24°F or lower) during lush, rapid growth.
Plate A-3.
Bent elbow (bending of the stem at the lowest node forming an elbow) is another symptom of freeze damage to the stem. Bent stems usually resume an upright position but lodging can be a problem with the added weight of the grain as heads begin to fill.
Plate A-4.
Stem freeze damage can occur after the jointing stage and usually occurs to the lower stem. Symptoms include discoloration, lesions, splitting, collapse of internodes, and enlargement of nodes. Damaged stems usually deteriorate further by breaking or rotting. The four stems on the left show freeze damage.
Plate A-5.
Growing point damage. After the jointing stage, the growing point (developing wheat head) is susceptible to freeze damage. To check for damage, cut into the stem. A normal, uninjured head (two plants on the left) is glossy, turgid, and yellow-green. A freeze damaged (killed) head (three plants on the right) is pale white or tan, limp, shrunken, and not developed in size. Plants were collected 13 days after the freeze.
Plate A-6.
Freeze injury to the head at the boot, heading, or flowering stage can result in death of the heads or floret sterility. The most obvious symptom is a white head color. Due to differences in maturity of the florets along the length of the head at the time the freeze occurred, there is a range in the location of the injury to the head. The center or one or both ends of the head may be sterile. In some cases, the whole head may be sterile.
Plate A-7.
The pollination (flowering) stage is the most freeze-sensitive stage. Exposure to temperatures of 30°F at pollination can kill the male parts (anthers) of the flower and cause sterility without any symptoms appearing on plant vegetative parts. The head on the right is sterile due to freeze damage at pollination. No kernels developed in the florets because the anthers and pollen were killed. The undamaged head on the left has a developing kernel in each floret.
Plate A-9.
Poor stands can be caused by a number of factors, such as drill problems, poor seed quality, dry soil, deep planting, soil crusting, low seeding rates, diseases, and insects. Close examination of the situation helps determine the causes of poor stands.
Plate A-10.
Deep planting (past the depth to which the coleoptile can elongate) can slow emergence or cause stand establishment problems. The coleoptile is the embryonic leaf that penetrates the soil so the seedling can reach the surface. Varieties differ in their coleoptile lengths.
Plate A-11.
A healthy wheat head has green anthers and white stigmas, as in the lower left floret. The yellow anthers of the middle floret indicate pollen has recently been shed. The developing kernel in the upper floret indicates fertilization has occurred and there has been no freeze damage.
Plate A-12.
Lodging can be caused by many factors. Heavy winds and rains at the heading stage are largely responsible for most lodging problems. Lodging tends to occur in low field areas or when high nitrogen rates, tall varieties, or high seeding rates are used.
Plate A-13.
Heaving results in plants being uplifted from the soil with the crowns above the soil surface and only a few roots attached into the soil. This is a common problem with frequent, alternate freezing and thawing of the soil, particularly with shallow plantings. As wheat begins its spring green-up, some plants begin to die.
Alley, M.M., D.E. Brann, W.E. Baethgen, G.W. Hawkins, R.L. Harrison, and S.J. Donohue. 1989. Nitrogen recommendations for efficient wheat production. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service, Blacksburg, VA.
Alley, M.M., D.E. Brann, E.L. Stromerg, E.S. Hagood, A. Herbert, and E.C. Jones. 1993. Intensive soft red winter wheat production. No. 424-803. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service, Blacksburg, VA.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers Standards, 40th ed. 1993. Moisture relationships of grains. D245.4. St. Joseph, MI.
Kentucky Wheat Producer Survey Results. 1992. Kentucky Small Grain Growers Association and University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service.
Mather, S.B., and B.M. Cunfer, eds. 1993. Seed-borne diseases and seed health testing of wheat. Danish Government Institute of Seed Pathology for Developing Countries, Hellerup, Denmark.
Maier, D.E. 1993. Dryng wheat to prevent sprouting and spoilage. Purdue University Grain Quality Fact Sheet No. 11. West Lafayette, IN.
Oplinger, E.S., D.W. Wiersma, C.R. Grau, and K.A. Kelling. 1985. Intensive wheat management. A3337. University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.
Parsons, S.D., B.A. McKenzie, and J.R. Barrett Jr. 1980. Harvesting and drying high-moisture wheat. In: Purdue Extension Publication ID-96. West Lafayette, IN.
Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute. 1983. Report Nos. 307, 308, and 424. Humboldt, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Wiese, M.V., ed. 1987. Compendium of Wheat Diseases (2nd ed.). APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
Wilkins, D.E., C.L. Douglas Jr., and J.L. Pikul Jr. 1994. Wheat loss and residue distribution for Shelbourne Reynolds header. ASAE Paper No. 94-1542. St. Joseph, MI.
Principles of Grain Storage (AEN-20)
Aeration, Inspection, and Sampling of Grain in Storage Bins (AEN-45)
Lime and Fertilizer Recommendations (AGR-1)
Chemical Control of Weeds in Kentucky Farm Crops (AGR-6)
Factors to Consider in No-till Small Grain Production (AGR-113)
Insecticide Recommendations for Small Grains (ENT-47)
Preparation of Insect Specimens for Identification (ENTFACT-001)
Plans and Parts List for the Texas Style Cone Trap for Monitoring Certain Insect Pest (ENTFACT-010)
Hessian Fly in Kentucky (ENTFACT-101)
Those Pesky Aphids! (ENTFACT-103)
Ground Beetles (ENTFACT-104)
Ladybugs (ENTFACT-105)
Cereal Leaf Beetle in Kentucky Wheat (ENTFACT-107)
Armyworms in Small Grains (ENTFACT-111)
Using Pheromone Traps in Field Crops (ENTFACT-112)
Procedure for Selecting Random Locations for Sampling (ENTFACT-113)
Kentucky Integrated Crop Management Manual for Field Crops "Small Grains" (IPM-4)
Kentucky Plant Disease Management Guide for Small Grains (PPA-10c)
Head Scab of Small Grains in Kentucky (PPA-38)
Septoria Diseases of Wheat (PPA-39)
Take-all of Wheat (PPFS-AG-SG-1)
Wheat Bacterial Streak (PPFS-AG-SG-2)
Black "Sooty" Head Mold of Wheat (PPFS-AG-SG-7)
Kentucky Small Grain Variety Trials (PR-376)
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